The proposed research is concerned with investigating how punishment administered by a parental figure early in life affects an infact's emotional attachment to that figure and its social behavior toward peers. Infant squirrel monkeys will be raised for approximately the first half year of life with inanimate surrogate mothers that deliver punishment in the form of airblast. Attachment to the punitive surrogate will be assessed in terms of the infant's (a) behavior in the rearing environment, (b) responses to brief separations from the surrogate, (c) choice behavior, and (d) response to novelty in the presence of the surrogate. Responses to peers will be examined under conditions of dyadic and group encounters. Separate experiments will focus on the effects of such factors as the frequency and predictability of punishment, the age at which punishment is administered, and rearing with differentially punitive perceptually distinct figures.